History of the Japanese Garden

The first style of Japanese garden was the paradise garden, which appeared primarily during the Heian period (785-1184). Pure Land Buddhism was the strongest influence on this type of garden, and the purpose of the garden was to try to recreate the Pure Land, or Western Paradise, on earth. The Pure Land was supposed to be a magnificent courtyard of sensual pleasures, with a pond of the purest water, the most fragrant and beautiful plants, and the rarest and most wonderful birds performing celestial concerts. In Japan, these gardens were part of shinden, compounds that served both as temples and mansions of the aristocracy. The shinden combined a number of corridor-linked buildings that bordered on a southern pond. Also present were water side pavilions that were connected to the main compound by covered bridges. The design of the shinden was strongly influenced by Chinese ideals, but, as with so many other things during the Heian period, the shinden developed into a distinctly Japanese style.

Though the shinden style mansion did not survive past the Heian period, many of its principles of garden design endured. Specifically, there is a work entitled the Sakuteiki which codified the rules for making shinden gardens. Perhaps the world’s oldest gardening manual, the principles in the Sakuteiki can be found in many famous Japanese gardens. Much of the Sakuteiki dealt with geomantic rules and taboos. These are concerned with such things as where and how to place stones, what course a stream should follow, or how to align certain elements of the garden. The rules are designed to ensure a proper balance of yin and yang, to harmonize the garden with the forces of the earth, and also to avoid arousing the wrath of the shinto spirits in the stones and other elements of the garden.

After the Heian period, Zen had a strong influence on Japanese gardens, as it did on virtually all of Japanese art. Not only did Zen Buddhism become popular among the ruling military class, but during periods of conflict the Buddhist monasteries remained repositories of culture. The less radical aspect of this can be found in a shift of intent in the paradise gardens. Zen art turned away from the supernatural, emphasizing the beauty of this world. Correspondingly, many gardens no longer sought to recreate a Buddhist paradise, but instead to reflect the beauty of nature. Natural, asymmetric arrangements were favored instead of symmetric ones. Plain, common plants were used instead of the impressive flowering trees popular in the Pure Land gardens. The ideal that the garden sought to embody was no longer the Western Paradise, but the beauty we find in nature all around us.
Another type of garden is perhaps more strongly associated with Zen. This is the dry garden, where sand and miniature elements represent water. Zen gardens try to capture the spirit or essence of nature, rather than to imitate it. As such, they can be very abstract, with perhaps only a few stones representing a vast mountain. The most famous example of this style is Ryoanji (shown at right), which consists only of fifteen stones, sand, and moss. These gardens served as places of meditation, or to illustrate a Zen concept.

Another major type of garden was introduced with Chado, the way of tea. Tea had been known in Japan since the Heian period, but it was not until the time of the great tea master Sen Rikkyu (1552-1591) that a distinct tea garden form was developed. Part of the tea ceremony involves walking along a garden path (roji), and this is the heart of the tea garden. Stepping stones are usually used to make a path through the garden to the tea hut. Traveling along this path, the guest is intended to undergo a psychological transition to the state of mind appropriate for the tea ceremony. The primary mood desired for the tea ceremony is wabi, which can be loosely translated as rusticity, or quiet solitude. Also, the elements of the garden are chosen for sabi qualities, which means that they are simple and understated, often with a naturally aged and weathered look.

New Japanese gardens were made through the Edo period (1615-1867) and continuing into modern Japan, but for the most part no fundamental changes were introduced. The gardens tended to be refinements of earlier styles or attempts to recreate the beauty of earlier famous gardens. One significant change, though, is that gardens ceased to be the sole province of aristocrats and monks. Garden-making now was largely done by professional craftsmen who catered to the increasing prosperity of the middle class.
In modern times, the most famous gardens are generally still those created in Buddhist temples during the Kamakura or Muromachi periods (1185-1568). Gardens can be found everywhere, though. From rooftop gardens providing a place of quiet retreat from city life to a beautiful garden scene in a restaurant, traditional gardens can be found throughout Japan. In addition, new gardens have been made that differ radically from traditional styles.